UC-NRLF 


" 


^Qji^L•  -fiilsOC  L•*^ 


2 


GIFT   OF 


Ju 


A    MANUAL 


OF  THE 


ROMAIC,  OR  MODERN  GREEK, 
PRONUNCIATION 


WITH 


ITS   APPLICATION    TO   ANCIENT   GREEK 


BY 

H.    A.    SCOiMP 

EMORY   COLLEGE,    OXFORD,  GA. 


Boston 

ALLYN     AND     BACON 
ι  892 


iUxbrarg  rrf 


A    MANUAL 


ROMAIC,  OR  MODERN  GREEK, 
PRONUNCIATION 


ITS    APPLICATION    TO    ANCIENT   GREEK 


BY 

H.    A.    SCO  Μ  Ρ 

Professor  of  Greek  in  Emory  College,  Oxford,  Ga. 


Έάί'  οΐ<ν  μη  βίδώ  την  δύναμιν  rrjs  φωνής,  ίσομαι  τφ  \α\οΰντι 
βάρβαρο? '    καΐ  6  \α\ων  iv  έμοι  βάρβαρος.  —  Si.  Paul. 


1       »  >     ι  •     I 


ΐ      > 


Boston 

ALLY  Ν     AND     BACON 
ι  892 


1^ 


Copyright,  1884, 
By  Η.  A.   SCOMP. 


Copyright,  1892, 
By  H.  A.   SCOMP. 


ι  I 


,1         .       '    .    '  


Typography  by  J.  S.  CuSHING  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Tresswokk  by  Bekwick  &  Smith,  Boston. 


PREFACE   TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION. 


A  few  years  ago  the  writer  published  the  first  edition  of 
"A  Manual  of  the  Romaic  Pronunciation  of  Greek."  It 
was  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  of  students  in  Emory  Col- 
lege. Since  that  time  quite  a  number  of  schools  have  used 
the  work,  and  a  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  edition  has  been 
rendered  necessary. 

The  "  Manual "  at  first  was  a  pioneer  in  its  field.  The 
author  did  not  know  of  any  other  teacher  in  this  country 
who  used  the  Romaic  pronunciation ;  yet  he  had  long  been 
convinced  of  the  general  identity  between  the  sounds  of  the 
Ancient  and  the  Modern  language.  The  study  of  most 
of  the  Old,  as  well  as  of  the  Byzantine,  literature,  and  the 
noting  of  thousands  of  instances  of  the  mutual  interchange 
of  certain  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  a  careful  comparison  of 
Greek  and  Latin  proper  names,  each  class  expressed  in  the 
alphabetic  characters  of  the  other  tongue ;  a  like  compari- 
son, on  a  much  smaller  scale,  of  Greek  with  other  languages  ; 
the  direct  testimony  of  ancient  writers  as  to  the  sounds 
of  their  own  tongue ;  some  study  of  the  phonetics  of  the 
voice-organs,  etc.,  —  all  these  have  tended  to  confirm  the 
writer  in  his  belief  of  the  general  identity  between  Ancient 

and  Modern  Greek  pronunciation.     Holding  this  opinion, 

iii 

304 


iv  Preface  to  the  Second  Edition. 

he  long  ago  discarded  all  other  systems,  and  has  since  then 
used  only  the  Romaic  pronunciation. 

It  is  not  possible,  in  a  little  treatise  like  the  present, 
designed  rather  for  pupils,  to  bring  forward  the  many  and 
the  strong  reasons  for  this  conviction  ;  nor,  least  of  all,  to 
give  even  a  summary  of  the  voluminous  mass  of  evidence 
and  proof-texts  on  which  it  is  based. 

The  aim  here  has  been  rather  to  present,  in  a  clear  and 
intelligible  form,  the  principles  of  the  Romaic  pronuncia- 
tion, so  that  teachers  may  readily  grasp  and  be  able  to 
apply  them.     No  attempt  is  made  to  teach  grammar. 

It  seems  almost  superfluous  to  speak  of  the  value  of  a 
correct  pronunciation.  So  far  as  Greek  is  concerned,  cer- 
tain sounds  and  combinations  of  sounds  must  remain  a 
mystery  to  him  who  knows  nothing  of  the  sonants  as  used 
by  the  Greeks  at  home.  The  interchanges  of  certain  let- 
ters, the  relation  of  accent  to  quantity,  etc.,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  abilitv  to  hold  intercourse  with  Greeks  in  their  own 

J 

vernacular,  can  be  fully  appreciated  by  him  only  who  is  con- 
versant with  the  pronunciation  of  the  living  tongue. 

The  writer  has  not  yet  attained  to  the  enthusiasm  of  Pro- 
fessor Boltz,  who  believes  that  Greek  is  destined  to  be  the 
universal  language   (die  Welt-sprache)  ;    but  the  commer- 

m 

cial,  political,  and  literary  development  of  Greece  is  now 
advancing  at  rapid  pace.  Her  National  University  at 
Athens  already  ranks  among  the  great  schools  of  Europe. 
Its  Faculty  numbers  more  than  one  hundred  professors,  — 
many  of  whom  are  well  known  to  the  learned  world,  —  and 
over  two  thousand   students  attend   their  lectures.     Gym- 


Preface  to  tlie  Second  Edition.  ν 

nasia,  grammar,  and  elementary  schools  are  established  every- 
where, and  an  almost  unexampled  eagerness  in  behalf  of 
learning  is  manifested  by  the  people.  Native  philologists 
are  making  their  influence  to  be  felt  and  acknowledged  in 
the  world  of  letters.  Investigators,  foreign  as  well  as  native, 
are  unearthing  much  of  value  in  their  search  through  the 
dialects  of  Greece.  Especially  is  the  Zaconian  —  the  heir 
of  Sparta's  ancient  Laconian  —  now  being  eagerly  sifted, 
and  scholars,  as  Deville  and  Deffner,  have  brought  out  much 
material  of  great  value  to  Greek  philology,  and  the  end  is 
not  yet. 

The  University,  as  a  kind  of  Sorbonne,  is  purifying  the 
language  from  foreign  dross,  and  restoring  ancient  words 
and  forms.  The  newspapers,  school-books,  and  other  pop- 
ular publications  are  now  almost  entirely  freed  from  semi- 
barbarous  words  and  idioms.  In  its  present  form,  no  other 
instrumentality  so  thorough  and  efficient  for  acquiring  the 
ancient  language  can  be  found  as  the  study  of  the  living 
tongue. 

All  teachers  of  Greek  or  Latin  composition  have  found 
themselves  hampered  in  the  matter  of  vocabulary.  Usually 
the  text-books  upon  the  subject  deal  with  original  or  slightly 
varied  sentences  taken  from  one  or  two  ancient  authors. 
In  Greek,  Xenophon  and  Demosthenes  are  most  frequently- 
drawn  upon  for  these  models ;  and  both  teacher  and  pupil 
are  painfully  conscious  of  being  held  by  iron  bands.  Who 
would  undertake  to  convert  a  modern  newspaper  into  De- 
mosthenean  Greek  ?  His  vocabulary  would  soon  run  short, 
and  be  found  totally  inadequate  for  the  required  purpose. 


vi  Preface  to  the  Second  Edition. 

Just  at  this  point  the  living  language  furnishes  the  needed 
help,  —  help  which  can  nowhere  else  be  had,  —  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  it  is  of  prime  importance.  The  Greek  nation  has 
still  survived,  and  modern  ideas  and  modern  progress  have 
affected  its  language  also,  and  now  find,  through  this  elastic 
medium,  ample  expression  for  the  ever-increasing  demands 
made  upon  a  modern  tongue.  "  Modern  "  Greek  is  found 
sufficient  for  all  these  needs ;  it  honors  all  legitimate  drafts, 
and  it  fills  a  "  long-felt  want  "  of  every  thoughtful  student. 

This  little  handbook  of  pronunciation  is  sent  forth  with 
the  hope  that  it  may  aid  some  students  who  are  striving  to 
master  the  noblest  language  ever  spoken  by  man. 

H.    A.    SCOMP. 

Emory  College, 
September,  1892. 


It  is  recommended  to  teachers  who  may  use  this 
"  Manual,"  to  practise  their  pupils,  first :  to  write  Greek 
words  and  sentences  phonetically  in  English  letters ;  i.e. 
represent  the  Greek  sounds  by  English  letters  and  syllables ; 
this  may  be  done  from  books  or  blackboard.  Next :  have 
them  write  similar  exercises  from  the  teacher's  dictation. 
This  will  train  the  ear  and  help  it,  as  well  as  the  eye,  to 
recognize  Greek  words  and  phrases,  and  will  engender  the 
habit  of  accuracy  in  pronunciation.  Next  :  reverse  the 
process,  and  have  the  pupils  write  English  words  and  sen- 
tences phonetically  in  Greek  characters,  after  the  samples  at 
the  end  of  this  book.  Let  them  do  this  both  from  sight 
and  from  dictation. 


A    SHORT    HISTORY 


>)      IIIK 


GREEK     LANGUAGE    AND     ITS 
PRONUNCIATION. 


Only  a  mere  outline  of  the  history  of  Greek  pro- 
nunciation can  be  given  here.  Students  of  Greek 
are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  Alexander's  conquest 
and  the  setting  up  of  a  great  Greek  empire  had  a 
most  important  effect  upon  the  Greek  language. 
Long  before  this  era  Attic  had  become  the  dialect 
of  literature,  law,  education,  politics,  philosophy,  and, 
in  general,  of  all  branches  of  learning.  From  ever  ν 
part  of  the  Greek  world  students  of  any  art  or  science 
were  accustomed  to  resort  to  Athens  for  instruction. 
Athenian  thought  dominated  the  Greek  mind.  The 
other  dialects  had  bowed  to  Attic  supremacy. 

Alexander's  conquests  were  also  Attic  victories ; 
for  everywhere,  along  with  the  civil  empire,  a  coordi- 
nate empire  of  language  was  established.  Laws 
and  political  proceedings  of  all  kinds,  the  records  of 
the  courts,  etc.,  were  all  in  the  Attic  speech.  The 
other  dialects  lost  their  identity  by  merging  into 
Attic,   which   henceforth   became    the    national    lan- 

i 


2  Grezk^  'Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

£rtage.— ΛΗ  iKW^'as  it  was  called.  Inconsiderable 
remnants  ot  the  other  dialects  were  imbedded  in  this 
common  tongue ;  but  they  were  not  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  affect  its  general  Attic  character.  Some 
scholars,  on  very  slight  grounds,  have  attempted  to 
show  that  this  universal  vernacular  was  largely  drawn 
from  /Eolic  and  Doric,  since  the  tendency  of  the 
former  is  to  a  moving  of  the  word-accent  as  near 
as  possible  toward  the  beginning  of  the  word  ;  while 
in  Doric,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  of  the 
accent  is  to  gravitate  toward  the  final  syllable. 

In  possession  of  the  government  of  education  and 
religion,  the  Κοινή  retained  its  throne  unmolested 
until  almost  six  centuries  after  Christ.  The  closing 
of  the  philosophic  schools  of  Athens  in  the  sixth 
century,  and  the  general  neglect  of  classical  study, 
were  not  without  influence  upon  the  language.  Yet 
there  was  not  a  time  in  all  the  following  centuries 
when  the  Greek  mind  ceased  to  be  active.  Paul's 
words  : 1  ΟΓ'ΕΧληνβς  σοφίαν  ζητονσι  —  "  The  Greeks 
seek  after  wisdom  "  — never  ceased  to  be  applicable. 
Especially  was  this  true  of  the  restless  Athenians,  of 
whom  the  love  of  novelty  —  ή  νβωτβροττοίϊ'α —  had 
been  characteristic  since  the  days  of  Thucydides.2 
However  much  the  people  had  degenerated,  their 
Κοινή  had  become  crystallized  in  Egyptian  papyri,  in 
Asiatic  inscriptions,  in  the  fixed  and  abiding  language 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  the  worship  and 
liturgy  of  the  Church,  etc.  :  Greek  could  not  die. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  were  the  natal  eras  of   modern   European 

1  ι  Cur.  i.  22.  2Bk.  I.  102. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation,  3 

languages.  It  was  then  that  the  prolific  womb  of 
Speech  conceived  most  of  the  great  tongues  which 
now  rule  upon  the  Continent.  Greek  was  affected 
somewhat  by  the  mighty  upheavals  of  those  centuries. 
Godfrey's  army  of  Crusaders  seized  Constantinople ; 
but  the  Latin  conquest  was  not  completed  until  more 
than  a  century  later  (a. d.  1204).  Latin  words  were, 
to  some  extent,  then  used  as  stem-words,  to  which 
Greek  prefixes,  suffixes,  or  inflections  were  joined. 
But  these,  formed  no  large  element  in  the  language. 
Grammatical  changes  we  will  touch  upon  hereafter. 
But  the  introduction  of  the  hated  Latin  Church,  with 
its  propaganda  and  efforts  to  proselyte,  only  made 
the  Greeks  cling  more  closely  to  their  own  Church 
and  to  their  mother-tongue.  They  would  none  of 
the  teachings  of  the  foreign  monks,  and  they  ridi- 
culed the  foreign  pronunciation  and  barbarian  butch- 
ery of  the  beautiful  language  of  Hellas.  But  a  still 
darker  cloud  was  gathering  along  the  eastern  sky. 

In  1453  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Turks, 
and  a  barbarism  yet  more  dense  than  that  of  the 
Franks  settled  over  Grecian  lands.  But  even  in  this 
hour  of  despair  the  Hellenes  began  to  dream  that 
''Greece  might  yet  be  free,"  —  an  open-eye  vision 
which  was  always  henceforth  to  be  present  to  every 
true  son  of  Hellas. 

Greek  colonization  had  a  strangely  retroactive 
effect.  In  Greece  itself  not  much  headway  could 
be  made  ;  the  Turkish  yoke  was  too  heavy.  But  in 
Venice,  along  the  Danube,  in  Bucharest,  Jerusalem, 
Smyrna,  and  even  in  Constantinople  itself,  the  clergy 
labored  diligently  to  establish   schools  and  to   print 


4  Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

Greek  books.  The  whole  Greek  people  seemed  to 
live  in  the  past.  Ancient  authors  were  printed ; 
enthusiasm  was  kindled  for  everything  pertaining  to 
Old  Greece.  "  They  thought  on  Athens  and  Sparta, 
and  refused  longer  to  be  called  Romans,  —  'Vw- 
μαωί, — but  revived  their  old  name  of  Hellenes, — 
"ΕΧληνβς.  The  ships  which  afterwards  constituted 
their  marine  they  named  the  Ares,  Athena,  Themis- 
tocles,  Epaminondas,  etc.  .  .  .  Their  subsequent 
gigantic  wars  for  freedom  were  the  product  of  these 
revivified  and  incarnated  ideas."  1 

Turkish  tyranny  kindled  the  old  love  of  liberty ; 
it  made  the  language,  as  well  as  the  people,  more 
united  than  ever  before,  and  eventually  it  quickened 
the  desire  to  purify  and  restore  the  old  speech  along 
with  a  restored  nationality.  But  a  long  and  vehe- 
ment contest  arose.  Invention,  commerce,  discovery 
had  made  untold  advances.  How  could  Greek  adapt 
itself  to  these  new  environments  ? 

Two  parties  were  in  the  field.  The  one  maintained 
that  old  Greek,  purified  from  all  modern  words  and 
foreign  dross,  should  be  the  literary  language  of  the 
people ;  the  other  asserted  such  a  work  to  be  impos- 
sible, but  declared  for  the  modern  language  freed 
from  archaisms.  To  this  latter  party  belonged  many 
men  of  ability,  such  as  Villaris  and  Christopulos.  It 
was  doubtless  fortunate  for  the  future  of  the  lan- 
guage that  these  writers  could  not  be  understood  with 
ease  by  the  masses,  on  account  of  the  provincialisms 
which  had  crept  into  various  parts  of  the  Greek  world. 
This  inability  to  understand  contemporaneous  writers 

1  Hatzidakis:  Einleitung  in  die  Neugriechische  Grammatik,  p,  .253. 


Greek•  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.  5 

was  an  object-lesson  which  showed  that  no  purely 
modern  language  was  possible ;  the  ancient  tongue 
must  be  studied  in  order  to  understand  the  provincial 
writers  of  the  same  century.  Old  Greek  was  on  the 
highway  between  the  modern  idioms.  A  compromise 
was  effected.  For  a  deficient  vocabulary,  etc.,  the 
modern  language  was  drawn  upon,  and  a  mixed 
speech  was  the  result.  But  the  new  elements  were 
clothed  upon  with  the  ancient  forms  ;  for  these  forms, 
being  used  in  the  Church  liturgy,  were  understood 
everywhere,  while  the  various  provincial  dialects 
could  not  be  harmonized.  The  ancient  tongue  was 
the  least  common  multiple  into  which  the  dialects 
were  resolvable. 

Then,  too,  the  ancient  models  alone  were  of  author- 
ity ;  all  admired  and  imitated  these.  It  remained  for 
Coray  —  that  Luther  of  the  Greek  tongue  —  to  set 
up  the  standard  by  which  all  was  to  be  measured. 
Coray  was  still  living  when  the  Greek  revolution 
began.  A  new  constitution,  laws,  and  political  in- 
stitutions were  to  be  established.  No  provincial  dia- 
lect could  meet  the  emergency.  The  great  author 
was  chosen  for  the  work.  The  new  language  must 
be  ample  enough  for  the  exactions  of  laws,  com- 
merce, science,  etc.  The  compromise  language  was 
the  medium  chosen  and  stereotyped  for  the  future. 

But  the  world  was  then  pulsing  with  fresh  life. 
Natural  science  alone  was  demanding  a  great  vocab- 
ulary for  herself.  Should  these  words  be  borrowed 
from  other  languages  ?  Such  was  the  modern  cus- 
tom. Englishmen  did  not  suppose  for  a  moment  that 
these  borrowed  additions  destroyed  the  integrity  of 


6  Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

their  own  tongue.  But  the  Greeks,  proud  of  their 
language  and  history,  would  admit  no  hybrid  into 
the  old  Hellenic  family.  Instead  of  borrowing  from 
abroad,  they  chose  to  draw  upon  the  ancient  lan- 
guage, and  coin  from  ancient  primitives  new  words 
as  they  should  be  needed.  An  embargo  was  laid 
upon  the  speech  of  the  outer  world.  The  task  was 
herculean.  Professor  Comonoudes,  of  the  Greek  Uni- 
versity, has  collected  in  his  "  Synagoge  "  —  ϋνναηωηΐ) 
—  more  than  thirty  thousand  words  thus  formed  by 
learned  Greeks  within  the  last  one  hundred  years. 
Latin,  Italian,  Turkish,  and  other  foreign  words  were 
summarily  expelled.  Greek  inflection  had  been  power- 
less to  deal  with  these  words  as  stems.  From  the 
foreign  σταμπαρία  ( =  a  printing-press)  no  family  of 
cognates  could  be  derived.  But  when  the  legitimate 
word  τυπογραφβίον  was  substituted,  a  multitude  of 
kindred  and  related  terms  could  be  built ;  e.g.  τυπο- 
γράφος and  τυπωτής  (a  printer) ;  τυπόνω  (to  print) ; 
τύπος  (a  type);  τύπωμα  and  τύπωσις  (an  impression, 
printing) ;  τυπογραφικά  {σφάλματα)  =  typographical 
(errors),  etc. 

The  thousands  of  foreign  words  thus  exiled  from 
the  language  are  totally  unknown  to  the  present 
generation  of  Greeks.  The  National  University  at 
Athens,  as  the  recognized  expurgator,  is  steadily 
purifying  Hellenic  from  its  foreign  dross;  and  it 
may  be  safely  asserted  that  never  before,  since  the 
days  of  the  earliest  Church  Fathers,  has  Greek  been 
so  pure  as  now. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 


IN   THE    WEST. 

With  this  brief  sketch  of  Greek  in  Grecian  lands, 
we  turn  to  its  story  in  the  West. 

Here  the  study  of  Greek  during  the  Dark  Ages 
had  been  almost  totally  abandoned.  Even  Aristotle 
was  translated  into  Latin  from  its  Arabic  version, 
Greek  having  become  an  unknown  tongue.  About 
the  time  of  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  in  1453,  many  Greeks  fled  from  their  native 
land  and  settled  in  Italy.  Shortly  before  this  time 
Greek  learning  had  begun  to  revive  in  the  West. 
This  was  due  almost  entirely  to  the  efforts  of  native 
Greeks,  who,  like  Chrysoloras,  had  come  to  Italy  dur- 
ing the  former  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Such 
teachers  were  Theodore  Gaza,  Pletho,  Argyropulos, 
the  two  Lascari  (one  of  whom  was  the  author  of  the 
first  Greek  book  ever  printed),  Bessarion,  —  though 
the  last  was  rather  an  author  and  a  politician  than 
a  teacher,  —  and  a  multitude  of  others. 

These  Greeks  were  the  only  recognized  teachers 
of  Greek  in  Italv,  and  the  pronunciation  used  by 
them  wras  that  brought  from  their  native  land.  The 
number  of  Greek  fugitives  to  the  West  was  vastly 
increased  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  The 
famous  family  of  the  Medici  had  already  become 
conspicuous  for  their  zealous  patronage  of  letters  and 
of  learned  men,  as  well  as  for  collecting  libraries, 
manuscripts,  etc.,  and  for  founding  chairs  of  instruc- 
tion, especially  in  classical  philology.  Frenchmen, 
Germans,  and  other  foreigners  attended  the  lectures 


8  Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

of  the  learned  Greeks  who  taught  in  Italy,  and  the 
torches  lighted  here  carried  the  flame  of  revived 
Greek  learning  across  the  Alps. 

Among  the  many  afterwards  eminent  men  thus 
taught  by  native  Greeks,  or  the  pupils  of  such  teach- 
ers, were  the  celebrated  Erasmus,  of  Rotterdam,  and 
Johann  Reuchlin,  the  teacher  of  Melanchthon. 

During  all  this  period  no  other  pronunciation  of 
Greek  than  that  of  the  spoken  language  was  ever 
dreamed  of.  It  remained  for  the  learned,  but  erratic, 
Erasmus,  in  that  age  of  revolution,  to  concoct  a  new 
theory  of  Greek  pronunciation  which,  in  any  case, 
would  agree  more  nearly  with  the  German  sounds  of 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  This  theory  Erasmus 
brought  out  in  his  well-known  Dialogue  between  the 
Lion  and  the  Bear.  Erasmus  himself  did  not  use 
his  own  system  of  pronunciation,  and  he  probably 
published  it  rather  to  display  his  own  learning  than 
for  any  serious  purpose.  Nevertheless,  such  was  the 
authority  of  Erasmus'  name  that  many  German 
scholars  adopted  the  new  system,  and  established  it 
over  most  of  Europe  north  of  the  Alps.  A  circum- 
stance very  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  new  system 
among  the  Germans,  was  the  fact  that  it  agreed  much 
more  nearly  with  the  sounds  of  their  own  tongue  ; 
indeed,  some  sounds  of  the  spoken  Greek  were  very 
difficult  for  German  articulation. 

A  vigorous  defender  of  the  native  Greek,  or  Ro- 
maic, pronunciation  was  Reuchlin  ;  and  so  vehement 
was  the  contest  between  his  followers  and  those  of 
Erasmus,  that  the  two  systems  were  known  respec- 
tively, as  the  Reuchlinian  and  the  Erasmian.    Another 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.  9 

name  given  to  the  Erasmians  was  Etacists  ;  while  the 
Reuchlinians  were  called  Itacists,  or  Iotacists,  from 
their  respective  pronunciations  of  the  letter  //(?;); 
the  former  sounding  it  as  ey  in  t//ey,  and  the  latter 
as  ee  in  beet. 

The  Erasmian  system  prevailed  in  Germany,  and, 
with  some  modifications  adapted  to  the  French  tongue, 
it  spread  over  France  also.  Two  Cambridge  pro- 
fessors, Chek  and  Thomas  Smith,  appeared  as  its 
champions  in  England  ;  but  they  found  an  opponent, 
strong  with  both  pen  and  sword,  in  the  person  of 
Stephan,  Chancellor  of  the  University  and  Bishop  of 
Winchester.  This  prelate,  in  1541,  issued  a  decree, 
in  which  the  Erasmian  pronunciation  was  interdicted. 
A  professor  who  should  teach  the  system  was  to  lose 
his  chair ;  a  candidate  who  favored  it  was  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  all  academic  degrees  ;  and  a  student  who 
used  it  was  to  be  banished  from  a  school.  But  in 
spite  of  this  emphatic  condemnation,  Etacism  finally 
established  itself  over  Britain.  In  the  seventeenth 
century,  however,  Iotacism  again  began  to  rear  its 
head  and  find  many  warm  supporters.  The  Eras- 
mians treated  their  opponents  with  contempt.  But 
the  latter,  galled  by  the  taunts  of  their  enemies, 
searched  afresh  the  whole  ground  of  the  controversy, 
and  collected,  in  support  of  their  system,  a  mass  of 
evidence,  both  ancient  and  modern,  which  was  truly 
formidable.  To  this  work  scholars,  like  Erasmus 
Schmidt  of  Wittenberg,  devoted  themselves  with  un- 
remitting zeal,  and  with  unswerving  faith  in  the 
strength  of  their  position.  The  mass  of  historical 
proofs  gathered  by  these  workers  began  everywhere 


ίο         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

to  shake  the  confidence  of  the  Erasmians  in  the 
genuineness  of  their  pronunciation.  However,  the 
position  was  tacitly  assumed  that  the  pronunciation 
of  a  "  dead  "  language  was  a  matter  of  no  very  great 
importance,  at  least  not  of  sufficient  weight  to  justify 
a  revolution  in  the  established  system  ;  and  so  the 
subject  was,  for  the  most  part,  ignored.  Greek 
grammars  of  that  period  generally  did  nothing  more 
in  the  department  of  pronunciation  than  to  give  the 
commonly  accepted  Erasmian  sounds  of  the  letters 
and  diphthongs,  and  discussion  of  the  subject  seemed 
banished  from  the  realm  of  letters. 

The  heroic  struggle  of  the  Greeks  (1821-27)  to 
throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  revived  the  interest  of 
the  world  both  in  them  and  in  their  language. 

In  1824,  1825,  and  1826  respectively,  appeared  three 
works  which  awakened  new  interest  in  the  matter  of 
pronunciation.  These  works  were  from  the  pens  of 
three  great  philologists,  viz.  Seyffarth,  Liscovius,  and 
Bloch.  The  first  two  of  these  writers  published,  as 
a  result  of  their  labors,  each  his  own  system  of  pro- 
nunciation. These  systems  agreed  neither  with  the 
Erasmian  nor  the  Reuchlinian,  nor  with  each  other. 
Professor  Bloch's  work,  however,  which  was  \rery 
exhaustive,  and  contained  also  a  critical  review  of  the 
recent  grammarians,  such  as  Rost,  Thiersch,  Matthiae, 
Buttmann,  Hermann,  and  others,  stirred  up  no  small 
commotion  in  Germany.  Many  champions  appeared 
on  either  side,  and  the  controversy  was  a  very  heated 
one.  Matthiae  replied  to  Bloch,  but  with  a  passion- 
ate zeal  hardly  to  be  expected  from  so  distinguished 
a  scholar.      His  reply  left  untouched  almost  all  the 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         1 1 

evidence  which  Hloch  had  collected,  and  the  latter 
was  so  far  confirmed  in  his  faith  in  Itacism  as  the 
genuine  descendant  and  representative  of  old  Greek 
pronunciation,  that  he  published  in  a  large  work 
the  history  of  the  whole  controversy  since  the  days 
of  Erasmus,  together  with  the  results  of  his  own 
investigations. 

Bloch's  conclusions  have  been  subjected  to  many 
reviews  and  criticisms ;  some  of  them  have  been 
bitterly  attacked  and  as  vigorously  defended.  The 
foundations  of  Etacism,  however,  received  a  shock 
from  which  they  will  hardly  ever  recover.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  the  system  which  still  prevails  over 
most  of  the  Continent,  in  part  because  of  the  very 
common  belief  that  pronunciation  is  not  a  matter  of 
vital  importance,  and  in  part  because  the  Reuchlinian 
is  believed  to  be  unable  to  fully  explain  certain  sounds 
(chiefly  those  of  the  lower  animals)  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  them  which  it  employs.  So  Erasmian- 
ism,  despite  its  acknowledged  lack  of  any  satisfactory 
proofs  to  sustain  it,  has  yet  been  able  thus  far  to 
retain  its  hold  upon  popular  usage. 

Of  course  the  Erasmian  does  not  pretend  to  be 
the  actual  living  pronunciation  of  a  nation  of  six  or 
eight  millions  of  people,  nor  can  it  lay  claim  to  any 
practical  utility,  as  can  the  Reuchlinian  (or  native) 
system.  It  is  rather  the  attempt  of  a  theory  to  main- 
tain itself  in  defiance  of  the  actual  pronunciation 
daily  used  by  a  great  people  who,  after  centuries  of 
thralldom,  have  shaken  off  the  yoke,  and  are  now 
showing  more  advancement  in  letters  and  in  politics 
than  any  other  nation  of  Southern  Europe.     Greece, 


12         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

ancient  and  modern,  having  a  general  identity  of  its 
language  which  is  apparent  to  every  student,  it  seems 
impossible  that  the  Erasmian  can  permanently  main- 
tain itself  against  the  actual  pronunciation  of  a  people 
who  are  yearly  growing  in  commercial  and  political 
importance  ;  whose  literature,  constantly  increasing, 
commands  already  the  respect  of  Europe  ;  and  whose 
every  child  is  thrilled  with  the  memories  of  Old 
Greece,  and ,  with  the  desire  to  restore  her  to  her 
proud  place  among  the  nations. 

An  English  system  of  pronouncing  French  would 
be  as  likely  to  supplant  the  native  pronunciation  used 
in  Paris,  as  the  Erasmian  would  be  likely  to  substi- 
tute itself  for  the  native  speech  of  the  Greek  people. 
It  is  impossible  that  a  purely  theoretic  system  can 
hold  out  against  the  daily  usage  of  a  people  whose 
influence  in  literature  and  commerce  is  felt  more  and 
more  from  year  to  year.  The  Erasmian  system,  even 
if  it  could  be  proved  beyond  dispute  to  be  identical 
with  the  pronunciation  of  the  "  Golden  Era  "  of  Peri- 
cles, must  eventually  yield  to  the  every-day  language, 
the  vernacular  of  a  great  and  prosperous  people. 


THE    ROMAIC   versus   ANCIENT   GREEK.1 

Greek  has  never  ceased  to  be  both  a  vernacular 
and    a    literary  tongue.      It    would    be   too   much    to 

1  The  modern  Greek  version  of  the  New  Testament  made  by  the 
Bible  Society  has  found  but  little  acceptance  among  the  people,  chiefly 
because  the  ancient  text  is  easily  understood  by  intelligent  Greeks. 
Speaking  of  this,  Dr.  Chalmers  once  exclaimed,  "  What  a  glorious 
thought,  —  a  whole  nation  who  will  need  no  translation  of  the  Xew 
Testament !  " 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         13 

assert  that  Romaic  differs  in  nowise  from  the  old 
Hellenic  ;  yet  as  used  by  the  best  writers  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  it  varies  far  less  from  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament  era  than  does  the  latter  from  the  language 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod  ;  yet  who  pretends  that  Dio- 
dorus  and  Plutarch  were  not  as  truly  Greek  as  were 
those  early  writers  ? 

The  progressive  character  of  language  is  fully  ad- 
mitted. A  vocabulary  will  continue  to  grow.  In 
Greek,  however,  this  growth  is  endogenous,  not  from 
without,  —  a  continuous  self-development.  It  draws 
from  its  own  fibre.  New  words  are  drawn  or  coined, 
when  needed,  out  of  the  great  thesaurus  of  antiquity, 
so  that  the  language  remains  purely  Greek  in  all  its 
lineaments.  Of  course,  the  present  applications  of 
such  words  as  rail-road,  steam-boat,  and  of  a  thousand 
others,  applied  to  the  results  of  modern  progress, 
would  have  been  totally  unintelligible  to  our  own 
ancestors  of  the  last  century,  even  though  they  per- 
fectly understood  the  meanings  of  the  several  words 
of  the  compounds.  In  like  manner,  άτμό-ττΧοιον 
(a  steam-boat),  from  ατμός,  steam,  and  ifKolov,  a  boat ; 
σιδηρόδρομος,  a  rail-road  (lit.  an  iron  way\  from  σίδη- 
ρος, iron,  and  δρόμος,  azuaj  or  road ;  ταχνδρομβΐον,  the 
post,  from  ταχύς,  swift,  and  δρομβΐον,  a  running,  etc., 
are  only  new  applications  of  words  already  long  in 
use,  but  which,  in  their  modern  meaning,  would  have 
been  totally  incomprehensible  to  an  ancient  Greek. 
Certainly  a  language  is  enriched,  not  destroyed,  by 
such  additions  to  its  vocabulary. 

Those  analytic  processes  which  affect  other  lan- 
guages have,  to  a  slighter  degree,   modified  Greek. 


14         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 


Thus  the  preposition  is  used  much  more  freely  now 
than  formerly,  to  express  relations  once  indicated  by 
case-endings.  Many  of  those  relations  anciently  ex- 
pressed by  the  genitive  or  dative  are  now  found  with 
prepositions  and  the  accusative.  A  good  idea  of  the 
relation  between  ancient  and  "  Modern  "  Greek  may 
be  obtained  by  a  comparison  of  the  text  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  its  ancient  form  with  the  same  in  its  mod- 
ern dress.  The  latter  is  from  the  version  of  the  Bible 
Society,  made  for  the  use  of  the  modern  Greeks,  and 
at  a  time  when  the  Romaic  had  not  been  so  purified 
from  foreign  forms,  etc.,  as  now. 

Ancient.  t  Modern. 


Πάτερ  ημών  6  εν  τοις  ουρα- 
νοΐς,  αγιασ#/;τω  το  ονομά  σον  ' 

Έλθέτω  η  βασίλεια  σον,  γε- 
νηθήτω  το  θελημά  σον  ως  εν 
ονρανω  και  επι  της  γης  ' 

Τον  άρτον  ημών  τον  επιον- 
σίον  80s  ημίν  σήμερον  ' 

Και  άφες  ημΐν  τα  όφειλη- 
/ιατα  ημών,  ως  και  ημάς  άφιε- 
μεν  rots  όφειλεταις  ημών  ' 

Και  μη  είσενε-γκης  ημάς  εις 
πειρασμόν,  άλλα  ρνσαι  ημάς 
άπό  του  πονηροί).  οτι  σοι)  εσ- 
τίν η  βασιλεία,  και  η  Βτψαμίς, 
και  η  8όξα  εις  τονς  αιώνας. 
Αμήν. 


Πάτερ  ημών  6  οποίος  είσαι 
εις  τονς  ονρανονς,  ας  είναι  ήγι- 
ασμενον  το  ονομά  σον  ' 

Έιϊθε  να  ελθη  η  βασιλεία 
σον,  είθε  να  εκτελεσθτη  το  θέ- 
λημα σου,  και  εις  την  γην. 
καθώς   και  εις  τον  ονρανον ' 

Χάρισαι  εις  ημάς  σήμερον 
το  ψώμιον  το  άρκετον  εις  την 
ονσίαν  μας  ' 

Και  σνγχώρησον  εις  ημάς 
τα  χρέη  μας,  καθώς  και  ημείς 
σνγχωρονμεν  (αντά)  εις  τονς 
χρεωστάς   ημών. 

Και  μη  ημάς  άφησες  να 
πεσωμεν  εις  πειρασμον,  αλλ 
ελενθερωσον  ημάς  άπό  παν  κα- 
κόν' διότι  σον  εστίν  η  βασί- 
λεια, και.  η  διταρ-ΐς.  και  η  Ootn 
|    εις  τονς  αιώνας.       Αμήν. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         15 

Here  we  have  seven  instances  of  the  genitive  or 
dative  turned  into  the  accusative ;  the  adjective  form 
τον  έπιούσιον  is  supplanted  by  the  adjective  and  ad- 
junct equivalent  το  άρκβτον  eU  την  ούσίαν;  the  prec- 
ative  imperatives  ελθετω  and  ηενηθητω  are  changed 
into  the  subjunctive  forms  eWe  να  βΧθτ}  and  είθε  va 
eKreXeaOr) ;  while  άηιασθητω  is  changed  into  a?  elvat 
ήγίασμβνον,  i.e.  into  the  imperative  a?  shortened  from 
αφβς  (=  let),  with  the  infinitive  and  participle.  The 
syllable  va  —  shortened  from  'ίνα  —  is  here  used  with 
the  general  subjunctive,  as  it  was  used  with  the 
ancient  subjunctive,  to  denote  purpose ;  μας  is  short- 
ened from  the  usual  accusative  ημάς,  and  with  a 
preposition  it  may  be  used  for  ημών. 

The  variations  of  the  "  Modern"  from  the  ancient 
version  belong  properly  to  grammar ;  the  identity  of 
the  vocabularies  is  such  that  all  the  words  of  the 
later  text  were  in  common  use  in  the  days  of  Christ. 
Where  are  two  languages  in  which  any  such  identity 
can  be  found  ?  While  the  grammatical  forms  of 
the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  of  the 
"Modern"  belong  likewise  to  the  ancient  text,  the 
meanings  of  the  words  have  been  also  retained. 

Greek  has  not  been  subjected  to  disintegrating  or 
destroying  influences  to  any  such  extent  as  has  Latin. 
Barbarians,  with  hostile  dialects,  invaded  the  domain 
of  either  language  ;  but  those  tongues  which  affected 
Latin  were,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  same  parent 
stock  and  family  of  languages,  and  amalgamation 
was  the  natural  result.  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Portuguese  are  the  illegitimate  offspring  from  this 
commingling  of  tongues. 


1 6         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

With  Greek  the  case  has  been  widely  different. 
Barbarians  of  Turanian,  or  Semitic,  stocks  were  those 
chiefly  who  came  into  direct  and  permanent  contact 
\vith  the  Greek,  and  a  fusion,  to  the  extent  of  pro- 
ducing a  new  language  from  such  elements,  was 
impossible.  No  language  has  sprung  from  Greek 
bearing  the  hybrid  character  of  the  Latin  tongues 
of  Europe. 

Ancient  Greek  was  so  rich  in  grammatical  forms 
that  there  was  little  danger  of  increase  in  that  direc- 
tion ;  rather,  as  the  event  has  shown,  there  was 
danger  of  losing  from  the  multitude  of  forms  which 
the  language  already  contained.  From  Turkish, 
Arabic,  and  other  neighboring  languages,  Greek,  in 
its  present  expurgated  state,  now  has  next  to  nothing, 
not  even  in  vocabulary.  As  to  other  changes  affect- 
ing the  language,  apart  from  its  stock  of  words,  most 
of  these  were  introduced  either  before,  or  soon  after, 
the  Christian  era,  and  they  are  to  be  met  with  in 
writers  of  that  period.  Words  which  were  the  names 
of  permanent  objects,  or  classes,  or  of  species  of 
objects,  or  of  acts,  conditions,  or  states,  the  character 
of  which  is  unchangeable,  were  naturally  those  least 
likely  to  be  affected  by  time  ;  e.g.  "Ανθρωπος,  yvvrff 
παις,  θάλασσα,  ίππος,  ά'γαθυς,  αρετή  ;  στέλλω,  λέγω, 
ευρίσκω,  πράττω,  etc.,  have  retained  their  ancient 
significations;  and  since  such  words  make  up  the 
staple  of  every  language,  Greek  is  now,  in  all  its 
essential  features,  the  same  tongue  as  that  spoken 
by  the  old  Hellenes. 

Greek  lexicography  also  furnishes  most  indubitable 
corroborative  evidence  to  the  identity  of  the  old  and 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         17 

the  later  Greek.  These  lexicons  are  not  for  a  foreign 
language  at  all  ;  but,  rather  like  our  English  diction- 
aries, their  purpose  was  to  explain  to  native  Greeks, 
in  their  own  mother  tongue,  the  derivation  and  mean- 
ings of  words,  phrases,  idioms,  proverbs,  etc.,  and 
biographical,  geographical,  and  historical  names,  etc. 
Words  used  to  define  other  words  are  themselves 
treated  in  regular  alphabetic  order.  These  remarks 
apply  especially  to  the  great  dictionaries  of  Hesychius, 
Suidas,  and  to  the  Etymologicum  Magnum.  This,  of 
course,  proves  the  general  unity  of  the  language  down 
almost  to  the  linguistic  revolution  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries.  After  this  time  the  character  of 
the  language  remained  essentially  fixed  until  its  pur- 
gation from  foreign  elements  in  the  present  century. 
The  first  Greek-Latin  dictionary  was  not  given  to  the 
world  until  1480,  which  date  is  the  beginning  of  what 
we  usually  call  Greek  Lexicography. 


VALUE   OF   "MODERN"   GREEK  TO   THE   STUDY 
OF    THE    ANCIENT. 

It  is  not  within  the  compass  of  this  tractate  to  dis- 
cuss at  length  the  advantages  afforded  to  the  student 
of  ancient  Greek  by  a  previous  acquaintance  with 
the  language  as  spoken  and  written  by  educated 
Greeks  of  the  present  day.  We  quote,  however,  a 
few  lines  from  David's  Einleitung  in  die  Vergleickung 
der  Alt  und  Neugriechischen  Sprachen  :  — 

"The  great  advantage,  however,  of  this  study  — 
λIodern   Greek  —  is   that   it   gives   to  the  philomath 


1 8         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

facility  in  the  language,  and  trains  his  ear,  rendering 
familiar  and  natural  to  him  all  its  material,  viz.  its 
forms,  syntax,  vocabulary,  and  prosody.  This  valu- 
able experience  is  acquired  by  speaking  the  modern 
tongue,  and  by  writing  exercises  in  it ;  and  whoever 
acquires  it,  reads  readily  also  the  books  of  the  ancients, 
and  is  able  to  express  his  thoughts  in  Greek." 

He  who  has  gained  a  "  speaking  acquaintance " 
with  Romaic,  finds  that  the  words  of  ancient  authors, 
the  meaning  of  which  may  be  unknown  to  him,  are 
the  exceptions ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  student 
of  one  or  two  years'  experience  finds  that  the  words 
with  which  he  is  familiar  are  the  exceptions.  Of 
course,  this  skill  must  be  acquired  with  the  "  Modern  " 
Greek  pronunciation.  The  native  Greek  who  has 
never  heard  of  the  Erasmian  system  as  applied  to 
his  native  speech,  regards  it,  when  used  in  his  pres- 
ence, as  hardly  less  than  a  direct  personal  insult 
aimed  at  him  through  this  unintelligible  jargon. 

The  agreement  of  the  accentuation  system  used 
anciently  with  that  of  the  present,  and  its  general 
accord  with  the  pronunciation  of  the  language  as  now 
spoken,  afford  very  strong  proof  that  the  living  pro- 
nunciation is  a  genuine  representative  of  the  sounds 
of  the  Κοινή  of  Alexander's  age.  Arcadius  informs 
us  that  the  accents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes 
of  Byzantium  about  two  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era.  They  were  introduced  undoubtedly  to  aid  for- 
eigners to  learn  Greek. 

The  pronunciation  according  to  accents  is  adhered 
to  on  the  Continent,  though  in  England  and  America 
the  accents  have  been   very  commonly  disregarded. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.  19 

The  supposed  conflict  between  accent  and  quantity 
the  Greek  solves  very  rationally,  inasmuch  as  he 
reads  an  ancient  poet  both  metrically  and  by  accent ; 
though  it  is  claimed  by  some  writers  that  the  native 
does  this  by  ignoring  quantity  entirely,  giving  to  all 
vowels  and  diphthongs  the  same  length. 


THE   ACCENTS 

being  the  same  now  as  anciently,  viz.  acute,  grave, 
and  circumflex,  and  controlled  by  the  same  laws  as 
to  their  position  and  use,  no  rules  for  them  need  be 
given  here,  since  these  all  may  be  learned  from  the 
grammar.  Educated  native  speakers  constantly  ad- 
here to  the  accents  as  the  signs  of  the  syllables  to 
be  stressed  in  speech.  Of  course,  the  sounds  of  the 
letters  may  be  almost  independent  of  the  word-accent. 
The  accentuation  of  the  word  may  remain  unchanged, 
whether  the  Erasmian  or  the  Reuchlinian  sounds  be 
given  to  the  letters  and  diphthongs. 

While  comparatively  but  a  very  few  words  have 
changed  their  syllable-accent  from  the  Koivjj  into  the 
present  written  language,  yet  a  few  such  changes 
have  taken  place. 

Certain  adjectives  have  shown  a  tendency  to  pre- 
serve in  the  oblique  cases  the  accent  of  the  nomina- 
tive, without  regard  to  the  changes  in  quantity  which 
inflection  may  involve  ;  e.g.  adjectives  of  three  termi- 
nations which  are  proparoxytone  in  the  masculine  nom- 
inative singular,  as,  άδικος,  άδικη,  άδικον;  gen.  άδικου, 


2θ        Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation* 

άΒικης,  aSitcov,  κ.τ.λ.  Compound  adjectives  are  those 
chiefly  subject  to  this  irregularity.  Certain  nouns 
have  also  been  subjected  to  this  assimilating  influ- 
ence in  some  of  their  cases,  the  accusative  plural 
sometimes  giving  its  accent  to  the  nominative  plural ; 
e.g.  άνθρωποι  by  analogy  from  ανθρώπους.  Certain 
verb-forms  also  manifest  this  tendency  to  retain 
through  the  inflection  the  accent  of  the  first  person 
singular.  A  number  of  adjectives  in  -κός,  formerly 
oxytone,  have  undergone  a  recession  of  the  accent. 
Some  of  these  last  variations  are  probably  due  to 
analogy  with  the  Latin  adjectives  in  -ens,  e.g.  eivieus, 
pub  liens,  etc.,  whose  accent  fell  upon  some  syllable 
other  than  the  ultimate.  Professor  ΧατζιΒάκης  sug- 
gestsx  that  such  tone-recessive  adjectives  have  been 
influenced  by  their  primitives  in  withdrawing  their 
accents ;  e.g.  ξύλινος,  χάλκινος,  πέτρινος,  etc.  (from 
ξνλον,  χαΧκός,  πβτρος,  κ.τ.Χ.),  an  hypothesis  which 
seems  not  at  all  improbable. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  num- 
ber of  words  which  have  suffered  this  change  of 
accent  is  comparatively  small,  and  many  of  the  vari- 
ations are  local,  not  universal. 

A  factor  which  undoubtedly  contributed  to  these 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  accent  was  the  neglect 
of  vowel  quantity,  at  least  in  pronunciation,  which 
prevailed  more  or  less  in  the  scattered  provinces 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Hellenic  tongue,  extend- 
ing, as  they  did,  from  the  Danube  to  Egypt,  and 
from  Syria  to  Sicily  and  Campania. 

1  Einleitung  in  die  Neugriesche  Gramxnatik,  pp.  428  et  sq. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.        2\ 

SYSTEMS   OF   PRONUNCIATION. 

Of  these  only  three  may  be  noted  here  ;  viz.  the 
English,  Erasmian,  or  Continental,  and  Reuchlinian, 
or  "  Modern  "  Greek.  The  first  of  these  needs  not 
be  considered  at  all,  since  nobody  believes  it  to  rep- 
resent in  anywise  the  ancient  pronunciation. 

Of  the  Erasmian  claims  we  have  already  treated 
somewhat,  though  the  evidence  relied  upon  by  its 
advocates  to  prove  its  pretensions  is  too. voluminous 
to  be  brought  within  the  compass  of  this  little  hand- 
book. The  chief  points  of  difference  between  the 
Erasmian  and  the  Reuchlinian,  so  far  as  the  sounds 
of  the  elements  are  concerned,  are  with  reference  to 
the  pronunciation  of  β,  7,  8,  η,  ι,  υ,  ei,  οι,  μβ,  μπ,  vS, 
and  ντ.     Of  these  we  will  treat  hereafter. 


BREATHINGS. 

Of  breathings  there  are  two  now,  as  formerly ;  viz. 
the  Spiritus  Asper  and  the  Spiritus  Lents,  but  neither 
has  any  force  in  the  pronunciation  of  its  own  sylla- 
ble. Before  a  rough  breathing  a  smooth  mute  is 
changed  into  its  own  rough,  as  in  ancient  Greek. 
Just  what  was  the  ancient  power  of  the  aspirate  we 
are  not  absolutely  certain.  But  recent  investigations 
have  shown  that  this  breathing,  as  an  aspirate  in  pro- 
nunciation, very  early  disappeared  from  the  language. 
Since  the  ^Eolians,  at  least  those  of  Lesbos  and  Asia 
Minor,  did  not  use  this  aspirate  at  all,  the  "  Modern  " 
Greek  has  been  called  sEolic  by  some  writers,  though 


22         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

with  little  reason.  Dr.  Albert  Thumb's  investiga- 
tions into  the  Spiritus  Asper1  prove  very  conclusively 
that  the  aspiration  fell  into  disuse  even  in  classical 
Greek,  though  the  mark  (f )  has  been  retained  in  its 
old  place  upon  the  syllable.  Inscriptions  antedating 
the  Christian  era  very  often  omit  the  aspirate.  It 
had  totally  disappeared,  as  a  breathing,  before  the 
capture  of  Rome  by  Odoacer.  The  Byzantines  never 
uttered  it  at  all.  It  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  had 
any  perceptible  force  in  any  Greek  dialect  since  the 
Christian  era ;  and  long  before  that  time  it  must 
have  become  exceedingly  weak  and  evanescent  in  its 
sound-force.  The  Latin  tongues  of  Southern  Europe 
—  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Portuguese  —  ignore 
the  letter  h  in  pronunciation.  Before  certain  words 
beginning  with  //,  the  French  article  retains  its  vowel ; 
possibly  the  Greek  aspirate  may  have  had  latterly 
some  similar  value. 

The  Spiritus  Asper  was  frequently  represented  in 
Latin  by  h,  but  often  by  other  letters,  as  ν ;  thus 
€σττ€ρος  =  vesperus,  etc.  Certainly  sounds  so  totally 
dissimilar  as  the  English  h  and  ν  would  not  be  repre- 
sented by  the  same  character  in  any  language.  The 
aspirate,  when  sounded  at  all,  was  probably  very  light 
in  its  breathing,  nothing  nearly  so  strong  as  our  //. 

Note.  —  Foreigners  in  Greece  will  readily  detect  a  slight 
breathing  of  a  β  or  a  τ.  which  many  Greeks  prefix  to  certain 
initial  word-letters,  though  these  are  denoted  by  no  significants 
in  the  written  language. 

1  " Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Spiritus  Asper!' 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 


23 


PRONUNCIATION    OF   THE    LETTERS. 
The  Alphabet  (to  άλφάβψον). 

Modern,  as  Ancient,  Greek  has  twenty-tour  letters 
{στοιχεία) — seven  vowels  and  seventeen  consonants 
—  in  the  following  order  : 


Capi 

Small 

Ν 

Force  or  Power. 

tals. 

Letters. 

AM  ES. 

In  Modern  Greek. 

In  Erasmian. 

A 

α 

Alpha 

"Αλφα 

Ah  (£=Λ  in/;?/) 

Ah 

Β 

β 

Veeta 

Βτ}τα 

V 

15 

Γ 

y 

Gamma 

Τάμμα 

Gh  (nearly) 

G 

Λ 

8      ' 

( 

Delta,  or 
Thelta 

Ac'Ara 

Dh  (or  th  in 
these) 

D 

Ε 

C 

Epsilon 

Έ-ΐ//ίλθΓ 

a  m  fate,  or  e  in 
///*?/,  or  in  eh ! 

Ζ 

ζ 

Zeeta 

Ζήτα 

Ζ  in  zeal 

Dz 

Η 

η 

Eeta 

Ήτα 

ee  in  /;/d'tV 

a  in  ;//c7/t• 

π~              < 

Th  hard  as  in 

Th,  or  /  in 

Θ 

θ 

Theeta 

Θητα 

( 

tJiink 
ce  in  meet,  t  short 

German 

Ι 

ι 

Eota 

Ιώτα 

< 

=  i  in  _/>/;/ 

Κ 

κ 

Kappa 

Καππα 

Κ 

Κ 

Α 

λ  Ι 

Lamdha. 
Lamtha 

-  Αάμβόα 

L 

L 

Μ 

μ 

Mee 

Μν 

Μ 

Μ 

Ν 

ν 

Nee 

Νί5 

Ν 

Ν 

S3 

$ 

Kzee 

Χ 

ο  in  «0/,  or  in 

Χ 

0 

0 

Omicron 

Ό- μικρόν  ■ 

#0,  if  final 

• 

Π 

7Γ 

Pee 

ΠΓ 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Ρ 

Rho 

Ρω 

R  slightly  trilled 
or  rh 

— 

\  σ, 
^  s  final 

Sigma 

2ιγμα 

S 

s 

τ 

τ 

Ton 

Ταν 

Τ 

τ 

Υ 

ν 

Eepsilon 

"Υ-ψιλόν    - 

Ee  in  meet 
(nearly) 

Υ  or  ou 

φ 

φ 

Phee 

ΦΙ 

Ph,  or/' 

Ph,  or/ 

χ 

Χ 

Chee 

Β   { 

Ch  (nearly)  ;  no 
exact  equivalent 

Ch 

ψ 

Ψ 

Psee 

ΨΓ 

Ps 

Ps 

Ω 

ω 

Omega 

Ω-/χ€γα 

0  in  no 

24         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

SOUNDS   OF    THE    ENGLISH    ALPHABET    REPRE- 
SENTED   PHONETICALLY    IN    GREEK. 

Greek  Phonetic  Equivalents. 

A  =  A  in  ημβρα,  or  ai  in  παις. 

A  (as  in  fat)  =  A  in  άνθρωπος. 

Β  =  Μπ;   e.g.  bowl  =  μπώ\. 

C  —Κ.  —  C-soft  =  £  ;  e.g.  cease  =  σης. 

D  =  Nt  (iiearly) ;  £\£\  land  =  λαι/τ,  or  simple  r. 

E-long  =  H,  =  I-long,  =  ei ;   also  =  ν  and  ot  (iiearly). 

E-short  =  e  in  μεν,  or  at  in  7τα£?. 
F  =  Φ. 

G-hard   has   no   equivalent ;    ηκ    approaches   it ;    e.g. 

go  =  jkcu.     (For  G  =  J,  see  below.) 
Η  has  no  exact  equivalent ;  nearest  to  X ;  e.g.  hill  = 

χιλ.      Η-silent,  as  in  honor,   is  unrepre- 
sented in  Greek. 
I-long    =  at;     e.g.     pine  =  παί'ν.        I -short  —  ι,     as 

pin  =  πϊν. 
J  has  no  exact  equivalent ;   τζ  approximates  it ;   e.g. 

jerk  =  τζβρκ.     So  also  of  G-soft. 
Κ  =  Κ. 

L,  Μ,  Ν,  and  Χ  =  Λ,  Μ,  Ν,  and  Ξ  respectively. 
O-long  =  Ω  ;  e.g.  no  =  νώ.     O-short  =  ο  ;  e.g.  con  = 

κύν  ;   not  =  νότ. 
Ρ  =  II. 

Q  =  Κου  (uearly)\   e.g.  quake  =  κουαίκ. 

R  =  Ρ,  though  the  Greek  Rho  is  somewhat  more 

trilled. 
S  =  -  ;     e.g.     song  =  σο'γγ.       S-soft  =  ζ\    e.g. 

repose  =  ρηπώζ. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         25 

Τ  =  Τ  ;   e.g.  Tom  =  Τόμ.      Τ  in  -tion  final  =  σι  ; 

e.g.  nation  =  ναι-σιον. 

U  =  Ou;  only  in  very  rare  localisms  was  it  equiv- 

alent to  Greek  v. 

V  =  Β  ;   e.g.  violent  =  βα'ί-ο-Χβντ. 

W  =  ()v  followed  by  a  vowel ;  e.g.  warm  =  ούάρμ  ; 

white  =  ουαι'τ. 

X  =  X. 

Υ  =  Γ  or  jl  (nearly^  if  followed  by  an  α  or  an  ο 

sound ;  e.g.  yes  =  yes,  yoke  =  ηίωκ. 

Ζ  =  Ζ,  which   also  is  always  the   sound  of  the 

Greek  ζήτα.  It  is  never  sounded  dz  or  ds, 
after  the  German  sound. 


REMARKS    UPON    THE    SOUNDS    OF    THE    LET- 
TERS  AND    DIPHTHONGS. 

Α-final  in  a  syllable  is  sounded  as  a  in  ma,  pa,  etc. ; 

followed  by  a  consonant  in  the  same  syllable,  it  is 

pronounced  as  a  in  fat,  mat,  etc. 
R   is  sounded  as  v,  in  vain ;  after  μ  it  sounds  as  b 

in  bat. 

Note.  —  This  sound  of  β  as  ν  is  evidently  very  ancient  in 
Greek,  dating  back  at  least  to  the  time  of  Xenophon.  Β  stands 
very  commonly  as  the  nearest  representative  of  the  Latin  ν  ;  e.g. 
Αίβίος  =  Livius ;  βίβως  —  vivius  ;  Λάβιδ  =  David  :  Ίεχωβά  = 
Jehovah,  etc. 

Γ  before  e,  77,  1,  v,  and  the  diphthongs  cu,  ei,  ο/,  υι,  is 
pronounced  as  y  in  year,  yet ;  e.g.  777,  pron.  yee  ; 
ye<f)-v-pa,  pron.  yeph-e-rah,  etc.  Before  7,  κ,  χ,  or 
ξ,  it  sounds  as  ;/  in  long ;  eg.  άγγελο?,  pron.   ang- 


26         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

yai-los  ;  ανάγκη,  pron.  an-ang-kee.  Before  a,  o,  or 
ω  it  has  no  equivalent  in  English.  It  has  been 
compared,  but  wrongly,  to  the  German  cJi.  It 
does  not  help  the  English  student  to  be  told  that 
γ  =  the  Hebrew  5?  (aym)>  though  such  is  the  case. 
Its  sound  here  somewhat  resembles  that  of  ge  in 
gewgaw ;  e.g.  βγώ  =  aig  yo,  nearly;  i.e.  a  kind  of 
half  e  or  i  is  inserted  after  the  ^/-sound  of  the  7, 
to  bridge  the  chasm  to  the  following  vowel.  Γ  and 
χ  are  the  most  difficult  letters  for  our  English- 
speaking  people  to  acquire,  since  they  have  no 
exact  equivalents  in  our  language. 

Note.  — Γ  seems  from  very  early  times  to  have  had  the  force 
of  an  "  irrational  spirate,''  as  it  has  been  called  ;  and  it  was  used 
to  bridge  the  hiatus  between  two  vowels  where  the  diaeresis  was 
not  marked,  and  was,  in  fact,  without  the  diaeresis,  denoted  in 
pronunciation  as  the  unrepresented  breathing  natural  to  such  a 
hiatus.  This  would  prove  the  /-sound  of  the  γ  ;  for,  as  a  palatal, 
it  could  never  fill  the  breach  between  two  letters  which  do  not 
blend  with  each  other;  e.g.  καίγω,  pron.  kay-yo.1 

Δ  =  th  in  these,  this>  etc.,  a  sound  which  Θ  never  has. 
After  v,  however,  δ  has  the  sound  of  the  English 
d\  e.g.  avhpa  =  an-drah.  To  distinguish  between 
δ  and  θ,  we  will  represent  the  former  phoneti- 
cally by  dh. 

Ε  =  our  short  e  in  met,  set,  or  eh  !  etc.  ;  e.g.  σέμνος, 
pron.  sem-nos.  At  the  end  of  a  syllable,  however, 
e  commonly  equals  a  in  fate,  or  eh!  Thus  τβτυμ- 
μβνος,  pron.  tay-tee-may-nos.  This  is  e's  force  in 
a  final  accented  syllable. 

1  Λ  tolerable  representative  of  7  before  a,  or  ω,  or  0  is  the  com- 
pound sound  yn. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.        2~ 

Note.  —  As  is  well  known,  since  at  least  from  the  Christian 
era,  e  and  cu  have  been  sounded  alike,  and  the  old  orthography 
often  confounds  the  two  from  their  similarity  of  sound. 

X  =  ζ  in  zone,  zeal,  etc.  It  has  never  the  sound  of 
dz  given  to  it  by  the  F>asmians  ;  e.g.  βαπτίζω  = 
vap-tee-zo. 

Note.  —  We  have  long  been  taught  that  ζ  is  a  compound  of 
a  r-mute  with  σ ;  yet  we  are  confronted  with  the  fact  that  Greek 
euphony  never  allows  such  a  combining  of  letters.  Thus,  e.g., 
those  noun-  and  adjective-stems  which  end  in  a  τ-mute  never  in 
the  dative  plural  of  the  third  declension,  combine  this  r-mute 
with  the  following  σ  of  the  ending  into  ζ :  but  they  constantly 
reject  the  mute  for  euphony.  Such  is  also  the  case  with  verb- 
stems  ending  in  a  lingual.  The  mute  is  dropped  before  the  σ 
characteristic  of  the  future  and  aorist.  It  never  combines  with 
σ  as  do  the  π-  and  κ-mutes  at  the  end  of  labial  or  palatal  stems. 
It  is  difficult  to  believe  —  in  spite  of  the  authorities  —  that  ζ  is 
really  compounded  of  two  letters  so  uniformly  hostile  to  each 
other. 

Η  =  ee  in  beet;  e.g.  πΧήσιος,  pron.  plee-se-os.  The 
pronunciation  of  no  other  Greek  letter  has  been 
so  much  disputed  as  that  of  η.  The  Erasmians 
pronounce  it  as  a  in  gate,  or  ey  in  they. 

θ  =  tJi  hard,  as  in  tliink,  throw  (the  soft  th  is  repre- 
sented by  δ  =  dh)\  e.g.  #eo'?,  pron.  thay-os. 

I,  if  long,  is  pronounced  as  ee  in  see,  and  it  is  often 
interchanged  with  the  other  long  r-sounds.  If 
short,  and  followed  bv  a  consonant  in  the  same 
syllable,  it  sounds  as  i  in  pin. 

Κ  =  k  in  English.  Often  a  soft  /  is  heard  in  the 
pronunciation  of  this  letter ;  e.g.  κβϊμαι,  pron.  tkee- 
may.  This  breathing  is,  however,  too  slight  to  be 
represented  by  the  full  /-sound. 


28         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

Λ  =  L  ;  e.g.  στβΧΧω,  pron.  stel-lo. 

Μ  =  J/.  With  π  it  is  pronounced  as  b ;  e.g.  έμπο- 
ρος =  em-bo-ros. 

X  =  N.  Followed  by  t,  the  latter  sounds  as  d;  e.g. 
εντός  =  en-dos  ;  irevre  =  pen-deh  ;  the  vr  final  may 
represent  d. 

Ξ  =  X\  e.g.  άξιος  —  ax-e-os. 

Ο  =  ο  in  not,  sot,  etc.  If,  however,  it  closes  the  syl- 
lable, it  has  the  long  6>-sound,  as  in  no  ;  e.g.  ο\ος  = 
δ-los. 

Π  =  P.  Following  μ,  however,  it  has  the  force  of  b ; 
thus,  εμπρός,  sounded  em-bros ;  τύμπανον  =  teem- 
ba-non.  So  also  of  μβ ;  e.g.  βμβαίνω  =  em-bay-no. 
Μ7Γ  in  the  same  syllable  together  =  b,  as  beforesaid. 

Ρ  =  R,  only  somewhat  more  trilled,  nearly  as  in 
Spanish. 

^£  =  s  in  so  fig. 

Τ  =  Τ.  It  is  never  sounded  as  z\  e.g.  αίτιος,  pron. 
ay-te-os.  After  ν  it  sounds  as  d,  and  in  the  same 
syllable  the  two  =  d. 

Γ  sounds  nearly  as  ee  in  meet;  e.g.  τύχη  =  tee-chee. 
Τ  was  sounded  like  the  German  umlaut  u  (nearly 
our  ee)  by  the  Athenians  at  least  as  anciently  as 
the  seventh  century  B.C.1  The  untrained  English 
ear  has  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the 
German  u  and  our  long  e.  So  the  Greeks  con- 
founded υ  with  l  and  ei,  and  only  the  well  educated 
can  to-day  distinguish  between  them.  The  Latins 
commonly  represented  the  Greek  ν  by/,  which  was 
sounded  as  our  long  e. 

Φ  =  ρ)ι  oxf  approximately. 

1  Burgmann,  Gr,  Gram.,  p.  25. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation*        2<j 

X  has  no  exact  equivalent  in  English.  It  approaches 
the  sound  of  the  German  eh  and  the  ch  in  the 
Scotch  loch.  It  is,  however,  affected  by  the  fol- 
lowing, not  by  the  preceding,  vowel.  We  may 
approximate  the  sound  of  χ  by  slowly  emitting 
the  breath  after  forming  c  or  k,  not  permitting  the 
tongue  to  approach  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Thus 
the  words  lock,  block,  stick  would  be  pronounced 
loc-h,  bloc-h,  stic-h.  The  sudden  explosion  with 
which  final  gutturals  are  dismissed  in  English  can- 
not apply  to  this  letter.  X  is  only  final  in  the 
adverb  ούχ  before  the  rough  breathing.  ΧίΧιος, 
χώρος,  χβίρ  are  pronounced  nearly  chee-le-os,  cho- 
ros,  cheer. 

ψ  =  ps  in  lips. 

Ω  =  always  the  long  o,  as  in  no. 

Ύζ  and  τσ  =  dz  and  ts,  and  are  only  found  in  the 
vulgar  tongue  of  the  common  people. 

Έ,χ  are  sounded  separately,  never  as  the  English  sh. 

Note.  —  The  digamma  p-  or  vav-sonwa  disappeared  from 
Attic  at  a  very  early  period.  There  are  but  rare  traces  of  its 
influence  in  the  Greek  of  to-day. 


DIPHTHONGS    (δίφθογγοι). 

All  Greek  diphthongs  end  in  ι  or  v.     The  proper 
diphthongs  (κύριαι  δίφθογγοι)  are  :  — 

αι  =  ay  in  hay  ;  e.g.  αίρω  =  ay-ro. 
et  —  ee  in  meet ;  e.g.  et?  =  ees  ;  βίρήνη  =  ee-ree-nee. 
οι  =  ee  in  meet ;  e.g.  ττοϊος  =  pee-os  ;   vkoi  =  nay-ee. 
vl  =  we  ;  e.g.  νιος  =  wee-os. 


3θ         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronuticiation. 

Η  and  ω  absorb  a  following  ι  without  losing  their 
own  sounds ;  i.e.  if  the  two  letters  form  a  diph- 
thong. With  η,  ω,  —  and  often  with  a,  —  the  ι  is 
usually  written  subscript. 

Τ  after  a,  e,  or  η  is  pronounced  as  the  English  v. 
So 

av  =  av  in  average ;  e.g.  αυλό?  =  av-los. 

ev  =  ev  in  every ;  e.g.  eudyyeXos  =  ev-ang-yay-los. 

ην  =  eve  ;  e.g.  ηύΧονν  =  eve-loon. 

ov  =  oo  in  loop  ;  e.g.  τούτου  =  too-too. 

Note.  —  To  the  above  sound  representation  of  υ  this  excep- 
tion is  to  be  noted :  viz.  Before  κ,  χ,  τ,  θ,  π,  φ,  σ,  έ,  and  ι//,  the 
ν  is  sharpened  into  the  English  f\  as  αυτός  =  af-tos ;  ενθύς  = 
ef-thees  ;  ηνξησα  —  eve-xee-sali . 

The  improper  diphthongs  (at  καταχρηστικοί  δίφθογγοι)  a,  17, 
ω,  as  beforesaid,  are  pronounced  as  the  simple  α,  η,  ω.  With 
words  in  capitals  the  t  may  either  be  written  subscript,  or  to  the 
right  of  the  letter  to  which  it  belongs  ;  e.g.  ΤΩΙ  ΛΟΓΩΙ,  or 
ΤΩ  ΛΟΓΩ. 

ι  ι 

English  has  not  many  proper  diphthongs :  its  improper 
diphthongs  are  generally  equivalent  in  sound  to  single  letters 
whose  phonetic  Greek  values  have  already  been  given. 


THE     ENGLISH      PROPER     DIPHTHONGS     WITH 
THEIR   PHONETIC    EQUIVALENTS   IN    GREEK. 

oi  and  oy  =  oi  nearly;  i.e.  the  accented  0  followed  by 
l  with  the  diaeresis  ;  e.g.  coin  —  κόϊν,  boy  =  μπόι. 
For  the  vulgar  pronunciation  of  ol  as  /,  as  join 
(ji//e),  the  sound  of  /  =  at  must  be  used. 

on  as  in  outright  and  ow  as  in  now  both  =  «01; ; 
i.e.  a  followed  by  the  diphthong  ου  ;  e.g.  outright** 
ά-οντ-ραίτ.   The  a-ov  are  rapidly  pronounced  in  such 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         31 

combinations,  as  arc  really  the  English  0  and  u  of 
the  first  syllable.  The  sounds  of  ou  and  ow  in  soul 
and  bowl  of  course  =  the  long  o,  i.e.  ω  ;  as  σώλ, 
μπώ\>  α:. τ. λ. 

Note.  —  In  representing  English  diphthongs  in  Greek,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  resolve  the  diphthong  into  its  constituent 
sounds,  and  give  these  severally  in  phonetics.  Certain  sounds, 
e.g.  u  in  sudden,  ou  in  bilious,  have  no  real  equivalents  in  Greek. 
We  can  only  approximate  their  sounds  by  other,  and  sometimes 
not  analogous,  letters  :  e.g.  the  English  short  u  is  nearest  our 
short  o.  Aw  has  no  real  Greek  representative ;  but  in  most 
words  ο  with  φ  or  β  may  be  best  used  :  e.g,  awful  —  όφ-ονλ,  etc. 


POSITION   OF  THE  BREATHINGS  AND  ACCENTS. 

The  breathings  and  accents  have  the  same  posi- 
tions upon  a  syllable  as  anciently. 

If  a  word  is  written  wholly  in  capitals,  neither 
accent  nor  breathing  is  used ;  but  if  only  the  initial 
letter  is  a  capital  and  a  vowel,  both  accent  and  breath- 
ing are  written  before  it. 

With  a  word  whose  initial  letter  is  a  small  vowel, 
both  accent  and  breathing  stand  over  the  vowel ;  if 
the  word  begins  with  a  proper  diphthong,  both  stand 
over  the  second  vowel. 

When  accent  and  breathing  stand  over  the  same 
vowel,  the  breathing  precedes  the  accent  if  acute  or 
grave ;  but  it  is  written  beneath  the  circumflex. 

The  limits  of  this  little  handbook  will  not  permit 
a  discussion  of  the  relation  between  accent  and  quan- 
tity. Erasmus  and  his  followers  in  Germany  always 
observed  the  accent  in  pronunciation,  and  yet  they 


32         Gi'eek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

adhered  to  quantity ;  and  Erasmus  declares  that  the 
very  donkeys  could  teach  us  that  accent  and  quan- 
tity are  different,  for  when  they  bray  they  make 
sharp  sounds  short  and  deep  ones  long.  The  monot- 
onous pronunciation  of  Latin  by  quantity,  which  seems 
substantiated  by  the  authority  of  Quintilian,  could 
not  but  have  a  most  vicious  effect  upon  Greek.  To 
attempt  to  weigh  down  Greek  with  the  pronouncing 
system  of  Latin  must  be  productive  of  untold  confu- 
sion. Certainly  accent,  though  affected  by  quantity, 
is  not  subservient  to  it.  The  Greeks  pronounce  their 
language  by  the  accents,  although  the  educated  stress 
the  quantity  now  as  anciently. 

All  who  are  familiar  with  Latin  versification  know 
that  the  word-accent  and  the  ictus  of  the  foot  have 
no  sort  of  agreement  between  them.  The  scanning 
of  any  dozen  consecutive  lines  of  Virgil  will  easily 
prove  this ;  yet  Latin  scholars  never  think  of  sur- 
rendering the  word-accent  because  of  its  clashing 
with  the  thesis  of  the  foot.  This,  however,  is  one 
of  the  chief  objections  urged  against  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  Greek  by  the  accents. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  accents  were  invented  to 
teach  foreigners  to  pronounce  Greek.  They  were 
not  used  in  the  Golden  Age  of  the  language.  Cer- 
tainly all  hypotheses  fail  completely  which  would 
account  for  the  accents  on  any  other  grounds  than 
as  aids  to  pronunciation  ;  and  the  general  adherence 
of  the  Greeks,  both  learned  and  unlearned,  to  the 
pronunciation  by  accents  is  one  of  the  most  incontro- 
vertible proofs  of  the  essential  correctness  of  the 
Romaic  pronunciation  as  judged  by  the  standard  of 
the  ancients. 


Greek  Language  cdu!  its  Pronunciation.         33 

GREEK  EUPHONY 

now,  as  formerly,  has  for  its  fundamental  idea  the 
avoiding  of  a  hiatus,  or  chasm,  between  two  letters 
or  syllables.  As  vocalization  is  produced  along  with 
the  expiration  or  emission  of  the  breath,  euphony 
may  be  reduced  to  two  foundation  principles  ;  viz. :  — 

(a)  To  prevent  a  catching  of  the  breath  after  enun- 
ciating a  letter  forward  in  the  mouth  ;  e.g.  a  it-  or  a 
r-mute,  by  going  back  to  pronounce  a  following 
sonant  in  the  after-part  of  the  mouth  ;  e.g.  a  /c-mute 
or  a  nasal.  Euphony  demands  such  a  consonancy 
of  the  letters  that  they  may  be  enunciated  without 
gap  or  hiatus  between  them  ;  thus  avvXeyco  is  eupho- 
nized into  συλλέγω  ;  for  v,  although  moulded  at  the 
opening  of  the  nostrils,  is  not  completed  until  dis- 
missed from  the  lips.  This  would  necessitate  a  break 
in  the  current  of  the  breath,  to  pick  up  the  following 
λ,  which  is  formed  just  behind  the  teeth,  and  a  chasm 
in  the  utterance  must  result.  This  is  obviated  here 
by  assimilating  the  ν  and  the  λ. 

(d)  The  second  principle  is  analogous  to  the  first ; 
viz.  that  letters  shall  be  co-ordinate  in  strength. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  change  the  amount  of  aspi- 
ration with  the  breath  already  upon  the  vocal  organs, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  emit  this  breath  from  the 
lips  and  draw  from  the  windpipe  a  fresh  supply,  pro- 
portioned to  the  aspiration  demanded  by  the  second 
letter ;  thus  a  hiatus  would  be  produced.  This  is 
avoided  by  assimilating  the  letters  in  strength,  as 
πθ  into  φθ  ;   κφ  into  χφ,  etc. 

On  these  two  fundamental  principles  euphony  de- 


34         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

pends.  It  is  very  important  that  every  pupil  should 
learn  the  place  of  formation  in  the  mouth  of  each 
letter,  and  the  organ  by  which  it  is  produced.  A 
knowledge  of  these  would  furnish  to  the  mind  a 
rational  basis  for  euphony,  which  otherwise  will 
seem  little  more  than  a  system  of  arbitrary  rules. 


EXERCISES   IN    PRONUNCIATION. 

Singular. 

Ν.    αυτός    =  af-tos  ;     αντη   —  af-tee  :     αυτό  =  af-to. 

G.    αυτοΰ    =  af-too  ;     αυτής  =  af-tees  ;   avrov  =  af-too. 

D.    αυτω    =  at-to :       avrrj    =  af-tee ;     αντω  =  af-to. 

Α.    αυτόν   =  af-ton  :     αυτήν  =  af-teen  :  αυτό  =  af-to. 

Dual. 
N.  &  Α.    αυτω    —  af-to  ;       αυτά    =  af-tah  ;      αυτω    =  af-to. 
G.  &  D.    αυτόϊν  =  af-teen  :  αυταίν  =  af-tain  :    avrdiv  =  af-tee'n. 

Plural. 
Ν.    αυτοί    =  af-tee  ;     αυταί  =  af-tay  :     αυτά    =  at-tah. 
G.  αυτών  =  af-tone. 

D.    αΰτοΓς  =  af-tees  ;  αυταις  =  af-tais  :     (ΐυτοΐς  —  af-tees. 
Α.    αυτούς  =  af-toos  :  αυτάς  =  af-tAs  :      αυτά     —  af-tah. 

DECLENSION    OF  THE   ARTICLE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Ν.  ο,  η,  τό  =  oh,  ee\  to ;  οί,  αί,  τά  =  e6,  ay.  t<ah. 

G.  του.  της,  τοΰ  =  too,  teds,  too  ;  των.  των.  των  =  tone. 
D.  τω,  τβ,  τω  =  to,  tee,  to:  τοϊς,  ταις,  τοις  — tees,  tais,  tecs. 

Α.    τόν,  την,  τό  =  ton,  teen,  to  :     τους.  τάς.  τά  =  toos,  tas,  t;\h. 

Dual. 
N.  &  Α.  τώ,  τα,  τω  =  to,  tdh,  to  : 

toIv,  tolv,  tolv  —  tedn,  tain,  teen. 
Note.  —  The  articles  <>.  τ);  οι,  at.  were  in  ancient  times  very 
often  written  without  the  rough  breathing,  as  Thumb  lias  shown.1 

1  "  Spiriim  Asfter."  pp.  ioo  et  sq. 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.        35 

From  the  "Death  of  Lord  Byron." 

(Angelica  Palle.) 

ΎούςΧαμττρονς  ύμνους    της  νίκης      αφινων 
Toos  lam-broos    eem-voos  tee's  nee-kees  aph-ee-none 

ΚΧαυθμών  ηχεί      ηρώων     ο    στρατός  • 
Klofth-mone  ee-chee  ee-ro-one  oh  strah-tos  : 

ΙΙικρώς    Χυττούντ   αί  ψυχαΐ      των    1,ΧΧ)/νων. 
Pee-krose  lee-poonf  ay  psee-chay  tone  El-lee-none, 

Τ"  ακούει   μακρόθεν      κα\  χαίρει    ο  εχθρός  • 
Tah-koo-ee  mah-kro-then  kay  chay-ree  ο  ech-thros  ; 

rO  φίΧος      ηΧθε  '     ττΧην  μόΧις  τον  ειΒον 
Oh  phee-los  eel-theh.  pleen    mo-lis  ton  ee-dhon 

Σκάπτουν  κΧαίοντες  τον  τάφον  αυτού, 
Skap-toon     klay-on-tes  ton  taph-on  af-too. 

'ΙδοΟ       το  τεΧος  ενδόξων       εΧττίΒων, 
Ee-dhoo  to  tay-los  en-dhox-one  el-pee-dhone, 

Και  το  τρόπαιον  θανάτου      σκΧηρού. 
Kav  to  tro-pay-on  than-ah-too  sklee-roo. 

From  Axacreon. 

Χε^/ουσιν         αί  γυναίκες* 
Lay-ghyoo-sin  ay  yee-nay-kes, 

\\νακρεων.      ηερων      ει  ■ 
An-ak-ray-one,  yay-rone  ee : 

Ααβών    εσοπτρον.     άθρει 
Lah-vone  ay-sop-tron,  ath-ree 

Κό/χα?  μεν    ουκ  ετ   ούσας, 
Κό-mas  men  00k   et    οό-sas, 

ΨιΧον     δβ       σευ  μετωττον. 
Psee-ΐόη  dheh  sev  may-to-pon. 

Έγώ       8ε        τάς  κόμας  μεν, 
Αγ-ghyo  dheh  tas    ko-mas  men 


36         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

it  eiaiv,  eir  απηΧυον, 
Eet    ee-sin,  eet    ap-edl-thon, 

Ουκ  olBa  •        τούτο  B%       οΙΒα, 
00k   ed-dhah ;  too-to  dhed-dhah, 

Ω?  τω  yipovTi     μαΧΧον 
Ose  to   yay-ron-te  mal-lon 

Πρ€7Γ€ί    τα    τβρπνα  τταίζβιν, 
Pray-pee  tah  terp-nah  pay-zeen, 

"Οσω  ττβΧας  τα   Μο/ρτ;?. 
O'-so   pay-las  tah  Me^-rees. 


From  ^Esop. 

Κύων     θηρ€υτικός,      Χβοντα     ΙΒων      τούτον  eoi- 
Ked-one  thee-rev-te-kos,  lay-on-tah  idh-one  tod-ton   ay-dhee- 

ωκβν •   ως    Be       €πιστραφ€ίς   €Κ€Ϊνος      έβρυχήσατο, 
o-ken ;    ose  dheh   ep-is-traph-ee's  ek-ee-nos    ev-ree-chee-sah-to, 

ό  κύων     φοβηθείς       €ΐς  τα  οττισω    βφυ^/εν  •      'ΑΧώττηξ 
ο  kee-one  pho-vee-thee's  ees  tah  o-ped-so  eph-ee-yen ;  Al-lo-peex 

Be      θβασαμένη  αύτον  %φη,      ώ    κακή       κεφαΧη, 

dheh  thay-ah-sam-ay-nee  af-ton  eph-ee,  oh  kah-kee  keph-al-lee', 

συ    Χέοντα        έΒίωκες,  ούτινος,       ovBe         τον  βρυ- 

see    lay-on-tah    ay-dhee'-o-kes,    οό-tee-nos,    oo-dheh  ton   vree- 

γΐ)θμον        ύτηΊνβ'γκας. 
cheeth-mon  ee-pee'-neng-kas. 

The  Lord's  Prayer. 

ΐϊάτερ  ημών       ο      ev   τοϊ<;  ούρανοΐς  '      άηιασθήτω 
Pah-ter  ee-mone  oh   en   tee's  oo-rah-ne£s  :  ah-yee-as-the^-to 

το  Όνομα       σον  Έλέ^'τω    η  βασίλεια    σον  yevijOi/TCu 
to  ό-no-mah  soo  :   El-thav-to  ee  vas-il-ee-ah  soo :   ven-ee-thee'-to 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.        37 

rb  θίΧημά  σον,    ώς    iv  ούρανο\      και  Ιπϊ      της   γης  • 

to   thdy-lee-mah  soo,    ose   en  oo-rah-ηό,  kay  ep-ed  tees  yees  : 

τον  άρτον  ημών      τον  έπιούσιον     8ος     ημίν    σημβρον- 
ton  ar-ton  ee-mone  ton  ep-e-oo-se-on  dhos  ee-min  sed-meh-run  ; 

καϊ  άφες      ήμΐν      τα    οφειΧηματα  ημών,      ως    και 

kay   dph-es   ee-min   tali    o-phee-lee-mah-tah    ee-mone   ose    kay 

ημείς      άφίεμεν  τοις  οφειΧεταις       ημών'       καϊ  μη 

ee-meds  aph-ee-eh-men  tees  o-phee-lav-tais  ee-mone :  kay  mee 

είσηνε^/κρς         ημάς     εις  ττειρασμόν  •  άΧΧα  ρνσαι    ημάς 
ees-ee-neng-kees  ee-mas  ees  pee-ras-ηιόη ;  al-lah  red-say  ee-mas 

απο  τον  πονηρού•      ότι   σον  εστίν  ή    βασιΧεία,     καϊ  η 
ap-ό    too   po-nee-roo :    ό-te    soo    es-tin   ee  vas-il-ed-ah,   kay  ee 

δνναμις*  καϊ   ή   &όξα        εις   τονς  αιώνας.       'Αμήν. 

dhee-nah-mis,  kay  ee  dhox-ah  ees  toos    ay-dh-nas.     Ah-meen. 

From   the  Iliad. 

Μ,ήνΐν    άειΒε,  θεά,         ΙΙηΧιάδεω  ' ΑχιΧήος 

Mee-nin  dh-ee-dheh,  thay-ah,  Pee-lee-dh-dheh-o  Ah-chil-led-os 

ΟύΧομενην,        ή    μνρι      Άχαιοϊς        aXye'  ίθηκεν, 

Οό-lo-may-neen,  ee  mee-ree  Ah-chay-ees  al-yeh-ay-thee-ken. 

Πολλά?  δ'  ιφθίμους         ψνχας    "Αιδι       προΐαψεν  ■ 
Pol-Ids      dhiph-thee-moos  psee-chas  A'y-dhe  pro-ee-ap-sen  : 

Ηρώων,    αυτούς  δε       εΧώρια      τενχε      κννεσσιν 
Ee-ro-one,  af-toos     dheh  el-o-re-ah  tev-cheh  kee-nes-sin 

ΟΙωνοϊσί    τε    δαϊτα,       Δ/ος       δ'  ετεΧείετο        βονΧη, 
Ee-o-nee-se  teh  dhay-tah,  Dhe-os  dheh-tel-ee-eh-to  voo-lee, 

'\ii~ov  δη      τα   πρώτα  δι αστι]την  ερίσαντε 

Ex    οό  dhee  tab  pro-tah  dhee-as-tee-teen  er-ed-san-teh 

At  ρειδης  T€    αναξ    ανδρών    και  οίος         ΛχιΧΧενς. 

At-rav-ee-dhees  teh  dh-nax  an-drdne  kay  dhee-os  Ach-il-ldfs. 


3 8         Greek  Language  and  its  Protiunciation, 

From  Thucydides. 

Χύσετε  Be         ούΒε         τάς  ΑακεΒαιμονίων 

Lee-seh-teh      clheh      oo-dhdh     tas     Lak-eh-dhay-mo-nee-one 

σπονΒάς    Βεχόμενοι  ημάς     μηΒετερων  οντάς 

spon-dhds    dhech-o-meh-nee   ee-mas    mee-dheh-teh-rone    όη-tas 

ξυμμά-χους.  εϊρηται     yap    lv  αύταϊς.τώνΈΧΧηνί- 

seem-mah-choos.     ee-ree-tay  gyar   en   af-tais,    tone   El-lee-nee- 

Βων     ποΧεων     ήτις  μηΒαμου  ξυμμαχεϊ,         εξεΐναι 

dhone  ρό-leh-one  ee'-tis  mee-dhah-moo  seem-mah-chee,  ex-ed-nay 

τταρ1  όποτερους    αν  άρεσκηται    εΧθειν  •  και  Βεινον        el 
par      o-po-ter-oos   an   ar-es-kee-tay  el-theen ;  kay  dhee-ηύη    ee 

τοΐσΒε       μεν    άπο   re    των  ενσπονΒων       εσται  πΧηροϋν 
tees-dheh    men   ap-ό   teh  tone  en-spon-dhone  es-tay  plee-roon 

τας  ναΰς   καϊ  προσέτι   καϊ   εκ  της  αΧΧης    ΚΧΧάΒος   καϊ 
tas     nofs     kay    pros-eVe   kay    ek   tee's  al-lees     El-lah-dhos  kay 

ούχ  ηκιστα     άττο  των   υμετέρων  υπηκόων,        ημάς 

ooch  ee'-kis-tah  ap-ό  tone  ee-meh-ter-one  ee-pee-ko-one,  ee-mas 

Be      άπο  της  προκείμενης       τε  ζυμμαχίας         εϊρξουσι 
dheh  ap-ό  tees  pro-kee-may-nees  teh  seem-mach-ee-as  eer-xoo-se 

και  άπο  της  αΧΧοθεν  πόθεν  ώφεΧιας  •      είτα    εν  άΒικ>')- 
kay  ap-ό  tees  al-lo-then  po-then  o-phel-ee-as,  ee-tah  en  adh-e-kec- 

ματι    θήσονται    πεισθεντων    υμών      α    Βεόμεθα. 
mah-te  thee-son-tay  pees-the'n-tone  ee-mone  ah  dheh-o-meh-thah. 

The  following  extract  is  from  Coray's  Prolegomena 
to  his  "  ΤΙαραινεσεις  ΐΙοΧιτικαί  προς  τούς"ΚΧΧηνας  "  : 

Το  σύγγραμμα  τούτο  των  ΥΙοΧιτικών  εσυντάχθΐ]  άπο 
ΰΧην  περιεχομένην  εις  άΧΧο  μακροτερον  σύγγραμμα 
επι^ραφόμενον  λϊοΧιτεΙαι,  άφανισμένον  κατά  Βυστυχίαν* 
εις  το  οποίον  ο  \ριστοτεΧΐ)ς  ιστορούσε  255  •  κατ 
(ίΧΧονς   1 68,  ττόΧεων    \ΪΧΧΐ)νικων,  κ  α)   βαρβάρων  τίνων 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.         yj 

νομοθεσίας  ή  ποΧιτικάς  καταστάσεις,  συνάθροισαν 
αύτας  ως  ΰΧην,  εκ  της  οποίας  εμεΧΧε  να  σύνταξη  τα 
ΥίοΧιτίκά,  καϊ  ταύτα,  καθώς  είπα,  κοΧοβωμενα  την 
σήμερον.  Ή  μετά  προσοχής  άνάηνωσις  αυτών  αρκεί 
να  Βείξτ)  καϊ  την  περινοιαν  του  φύΧοσοφου,  καϊ  τας 
άΧηθεϊς  αίτιας,  δια  τι  οι  "ΈιΧΧηνες  με  τοσην  γνώσιν 
ποΧιτίκην,  δεν  εδυνήθησαν  όμως  να  φυΧάξωσι  μέχρι 
τεΧους  την  μετ  άΧΧηΧων  ομονοίαν,  καϊ  δια  τί  τα 
σημερινά  της  Έ,ύρώπης  έθνη  με  πΧειοτεραν  των  Ελ- 
Χηνων  επιστημην  της  ποΧιτικής  κοινωνίας*  δεν  ημπό- 
ρεσαν ακόμη  να  είρηνεύσωσι  προς  άΧΧηΧους. 

A  few  samples  of  English  turned  into  phonetic 
Greek  will  be  given  here.  This  reverse  process  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  for  getting  the  true  value  of 
the  sounds. 

The  Last  Rose  of  Summer. 
Ύϊζ  δε  Χαστ  ρώζ  όφ    (or  όβ)    σόμμερ 

Χεφτ  μπΧουμ-iyy  άΧών  • 
Όλ   ερ  ΧοβΧι    κομ-πάν-ιονς 

\ρ   φαί-τετ   άντ  ηκον. 
Χώ   φΧά-ουρ   όφ   ερ   κίν-τρετ, 

Νώ  ρώζ-μποτ   ίζ  ναϊ\ 
Ίο   ρη-φΧεκτ  μπακ   ερ   μπΧοσ-ιες, 

Ofl   <γκ\β  σα'ί  φορ   σαϊ. 

ΧίΧ   νότ  Χήβ   δή   δά-ου   Χών   ου-όν, 

Το   παίν  όν   δε   στεμ  ■ 
Ζ,ινς   δε  Χόβ-Χι   άρ  σΧήπ-r/y, 

Υκώ,  σΧήπ  δά-ου   ου-ίθ  δεμ. 


4θ        Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

Λ 09   καίντ-Χι   at  σκατ-ep 

Aat  Χηβζ  ωρ   Be  μπέ"τ, 
Ov-ep   Bat  μαϊτς   οφ   Be  ηκάρ-τεν 

\αί  aevT-Xes   αντ  τέτ. 

H6   σονν  μαί  at  φόΧ-Χο 

Ου-ev   φρβντ-σι-ίψ   τη-καΐ, 
'Αντ   φρομ  Χοβζ  σι-at-viyy  aep-rceX 

Δε   τζβμζ  τρόπ   α-ου-αί. 
Ov-ev  τ  ρου  άρτς  Xat  ov-t'B-epr, 

Αντ  φοντ  ου-όνζ  άρ   φΧώι\ 
'Ώ,  ον   ον-οντ   Ιν-άμττ-ίτ 

A<t  μττΧήκ   ου-έρΧτ  άΧών. 

Note.  —  Frequently,  as  in  the  above,  other  approximate  rep- 
resentatives may  be  used,  whose  phonetic  values  are  near  equiv- 
alents for  the  Greek  sounds. 

Maid   of   Athens. 

ι.    Μα£τ   όφ  "λθ-βνζ,  e-ep   ου-ή   ττάρτ, 
Τκίβ,  ώ,  <γκίβ  μη   μπακ  μαί'  άρτ  ■ 
Όρ,  σίνς   Βάτ   α?    Χβφτ  μαί'  μττρβστ, 
Κτ}7Γ   ίτ   νά-ου*  αντ  ταϊκ   Be  pear. 
K-ep  μαί  βα-ου   μττψφωρ   at  y/c& 
Άωη   μου,  σάς   ά^αττω. 

2.    Μπα/  Βωζ  rpea-es   ον-κον-φαίντ* 
Ου-οντ   μττα'ί'  ήτς   'Ι  \-τζή-αν  ον-ίντ• 


Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation.        4Γ 

Μπαί'  Βό)ζ  λ/τ?    ον-ονζ  τζέτ-τί   φριντς 
Κί'?   Bat  σόφτ   τσηξ  μπΧούμ-iyy   τίντς, 
Μπα*''  Βωζ  ου-α'ι'Χτ  αιζ  Χαϊκ   Be  ρώ, 
Αώη  μου.  σας   ay  απ  ω. 

3•    ΧΙτταί  Bar  Χίττ   αϊ  \ογγ   το   ταϊστ  ■ 
Μπαΐ''  Βάτ    ζών    ίν-σβρ-κβΧτ   ου-αιστ• 
^Slrrat  οΧ  Be   τώ-hev   φΧά-ου-€ρ<;   Βάτ   τβλ 
Ου-άτ  ου-ερτς   καν   νίβ-ep   σττηκ   σο   ου-eX' 
λίτταί'  Χοβζ  αΧ-τ6{)-ναιτ  τζόϊ  όρ   ον-ώ, 
Ζώτ;   μου,  σας  απαιτώ. 

4•    ΑΙαΐτ  οφ    \θ-€ν<ζ,  at  αμ  jkov  • 
(-)ίνκ   όφ  μή<  σου-ήτ,  ου-ev  άΧων. 
Δώ   at  φΧα'ί'  το   Ίσ-Χαμ-ττόιΧ. 
"Αθ-evs   &)λτ9  μα'ι'  άρτ  άντ   σώΧ- 
Καν  at  σή<ζ   το   Χοβ   Βή,  Χώ* 
Ζώη   μου,  σάς   άηαττω. 

Destruction  of  Sennacherib. 
\η  Άσ-σιρ-ί-αν  καίμ  τά-ουν  Χα'ί'κ  Be  ου-όΧφ  όν  Be  φώΧτ, 
Άντ  ϊζ  κώ-όρτς  ου-ep   «/ΗΧήμ-ιγγ  Ιν  irop-ireX  άντ  γκώλτ  ■ 
\\ντ  Be  σι-ήν  όφ  Be-tp  σττέ-ιρζ  ου-άζ  Xat'K  στάρζον  Be  ση. 
Ου-ev  Be  μττΧου  ου-αϊβ  ρώΧζ  ναϊτ-Χι  όν  τηττ  ΤκάΧ-ιΧ-Χή. 

The  Child's  Prayer,  —  "  Now  I  Lay  me  down  to  Sleep." 

Χά-ου   at  Xal  μη   τά-ουν   το   σΧήττ, 
At  ττραϊ   Βη.  Αορτ.  μα'ι    σώΧ   το   κηπ  ■ 

Ιφ   at  σι-οΰτ  rat  μπη-φώρ   at  ου-αΐκ, 
At  πρα\    Βη.  Αόρτ,  μα'ι    σώΧ   το   ταΐκ. 


42         Greek  Language  and  its  Pronunciation. 

My  Country!  'tis  of  Thee.     ( America.) 

Maif  κόν-τρι,  τίζ  6φ   8ή, 

Έον-ήτ  \άντ   6φ  Χίμ-ττβρ-τι, 
Όφ  Βή  at  σιηη  • 

Αάντ   ov-e-tp  μαΐ  φά-heps   ταΐτ, 
Αάντ   όφ  δέ   ττίΧ-γκριμς  πρα'ίτ, 

Φρόμ  (ίβ-ρι  μά-ουν-ταίνζ  σα'ίτ 
Λετ  φρή-τομ  plyy- 

Additional  exercises  may  be  given  by  the  teacher 
from  Greek  or  English  authors,  and  the  pupil  may 
be  practised  in  this  phonetic  work  until  he  shall  be- 
come master  of  the  pronunciation  and  able  to  apply 
it  with  readiness.  Having  once  acquired  the  Romaic 
pronunciation,  he  will  never  give  it  up  for  any  other. 
By  applying  it  both  to  Ancient  and  Modern  Greek, 
the  language  will  begin  to  have  for  him  a  unity,  an 
identity,  and  a  living  character  which  soon  separates 
it  from  the  tongues  which  are  classed  as  "dead." 


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